Journal Citation for “Hate Crime”

Journal Citation List Hull, H. G. (2009). THE NOT-SO-GOLDEN YEARS: WHY HATE CRIME LEGISLATION IS FAILING A VULNERABLE AGING POPULATION. Mich. St. L. Rev. 387. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Wang, L. (2000). RECOGNIZING OPPORTUNISTIC BIAS CRIMES. 80 B. U. L. Rev. 1399. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Taslitz, A. E. (2000). HATE CRIMES, FREE SPEECH, AND THE CONTRACT OF MUTUAL INDIFFERENCE. 80 B. U. L. Rev. 1283. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Ginsberg, A. (2011).Hate Is Enough HOW NEW YORK'S BIAS CRIMES STATUTE HAS EXCEEDED ITS INTENDED SCOPE. 76 Brooklyn L. Rev. 1599. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Schafer, J. R. ; Navarro, J. (2000). HATE UNMASKED: A PRACTICAL MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING AND DEALING WITH HATE GROUPS. 21 Chicano-Latino L. Rev. 5. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Martin II, S. R. (1994). ESTABLISHING THE CONSTITUTIONAL USE OF BIAS-INSPIRED BELIEFS AND EXPRESSIONS IN PENALTY ENHANCEMENT FOR HATE CRIMES: WISCONSIN v. MITCHELL. 27 Creighton L. Rev. 503. Retrieved from www. exisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Jacobs, J. B. ; Potter, K. A. (1997). Hate Crimes: A Critical Perspective. 22 Crime ; Just. 1. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Ainsworth, K. N. (1993). TARGETING CONDUCT: A CONSTITUTIONAL METHOD OF PENALIZING HATE CRIMES. 20 Fordham Urb. L. J. 669. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Han, E. (2006). CONSTITUTIONAL LAW CHAPTER: B. HATE CRIMES AND HATE SPEECH. 7 Geo. J. Gender ; L. 679. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Kalam, M. (2000). Hate Crime Prevention. 37 Harv.J. on Legis. 593. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Gratett, R. ; Jenness, V. (2001). EXAMINING THE BOUNDARIES OF HATE CRIME LAW: DISABILITIES AND THE â€Å"DILEMMA OF DIFFERENCE. 91 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 653. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic S cotting,T. A. (2001). Hate Crimes and the Need for Stronger Federal Legislation. 34 Akron L. Rev. 853. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic MacNamara, B. S. (2003). NEW YORK'S HATE CRIMES ACT OF 2000: PROBLEMATIC AND REDUNDANT LEGISLATION AIMED AT SUBJECTIVE MOTIVATION. 6 Alb. L. Rev. 519. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Taslitz, A. E. (1999). Condemning the Racist Personality: Why the Critics of Hate Crimes Legislation Are Wrong. 40 B. C. L. Rev 739. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Sampson, M. H. (2000). Federal Hate Crimes Legislation PRO: The problem of hate crimes demands federal intervention, bringing with it increased expertise and resources. 26 San Francisco Att'y 24. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Wang, L. (1997).THE TRANSFORMING POWER OF â€Å"HATE†: SOCIAL COGNITION THEORY AND THE HARMS OF BIAS-RELATED CRIME. 71 S. Cal. L. Rev. 47. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hott opics/lnacademic O'Keefe, K. B. (2010). PROTECTING THE HOMELESS UNDER VULNERABLE VICTIM SENTENCING GUIDELINES: AN ALTERNATIVE TO INCLUSION IN HATE CRIME LAWS. 52 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 301. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Agyemang, T. (2006). RECONCEPTUALIZING CHILD SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AS A BIAS CRIME UNDER THE PROTECT ACT. 12 Cardozo J. L. & Gender 937. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Lawrence, F.M. (2003). THE NEW DATA: OVER-REPRESENTATION OF MINORITIES IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM ARTICLE: ENFORCING BIAS-CRIME LAWS WITHOUT BIAS: EVALUATING THE DISPROPORTIONATE-ENFORCEMENT CRITIQUE. 66 Law & Contemp. Prob. 49. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Grattet, R. & Jenness, V. (2005). THANKING OUR REVIEWER: ARTICLE OF GENERAL INTEREST: The Reconstitution of Law in Local Settings: Agency Discretion, Ambiguity, and a Surplus of Law in the Policing of Hate Crime. 39 Law & Soc'y Rev. 893. Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. co m/hottopics/lnacademic

Example of Term Paper Outline

Example for Outlining a Research/Term Paper Before you start writing get your ideas down in a logical sequence that you can then use to expand while actually writing the paper. This is only meant to be an example and a guide; pay attention to your teacher’s instructions for the assignment and format instructions for their class. Know what style format your instructor wants you to use – APA or MLA. Thesis statement: Example: The cost of medical care in the United States is causing the poor to receive substandard care. Key points: Examples of possible key points for the above thesis statement: 1.Paying for medical care is beyond the reach of the poor. 2. Paying for medical insurance is beyond the reach of the poor if not offered by their employers. 3. The poor are forced to use over-extended and under-staffed medical facilities if they cannot afford care. 4. Are we ethically responsible for caring for the poor? 5. What would possible alternatives be to supplying medical c are for the poor? You can use the thesis statement and key points to create an introductory paragraph; then you will expand in the rest of the paper on the thesis and key points. Examples of expanding on key points: Key point 1.Paying for medical care is beyond the reach of the poor. < Expand your ideas for this topic – this could be one or more paragraphs. > Demonstrate why and how medical care is beyond the poor. Average cost of medical care as opposed to average salaries. The poor have to use clinics and other free care. Key point 2. Paying for medical insurance is beyond the reach of the poor if not offered by their employers. Can the average worker afford health care costs even if they have them. Average costs of health care plans. If an employer does not supply health care benefits how can employees get it. Key point 3.The poor are forced to use over-extended and under-staffed medical facilities if they cannot afford care. What kind of facilities are available to people who can’t afford health care. What are limitations for using those facilities (income, etc. ). Are these facilities adequately staffed and funded. Pros and cons for these facilities – i. e. better than no health care at all, don’t see the same doctor, etc. Key point 4. Are we ethically responsible for caring for the poor? Does a society have an ethical responsibility to take care of its poor? Moral & ethical foundations – religious, ethical, philosophical.Economic / political reasons for providing or not providing health care. Key point 5. What would possible alternatives be to supplying medical care for the poor? What models exist in other countries? Do they seem to work? What alternative models are available in this country? i. e. Faith based, private foundations like The Shriners, etc. What factors / institutions would fight against change in health care? i. e. Pharmaceutical companies, insurance companies, non-flexible thinking, etc. Summary / Conclu sion: Create a key summary sentence/paragraph that declares a wrap-up of concepts you have covered in the paper.You may want to quickly summarize your main ideas. This should transition into a Conclusion of your ideas on the topic. The conclusion could be a separate paragraph or this section could be more than one paragraph. Reference / Works Cited: List of the sources you used in writing the paper. Follow your teacher’s instructions for number required and format. Glossary: Thesis statement – a brief sentence presenting the main point of a persuasive writing, usually in the introductory paragraph. Key points – those ideas that you will use to support your thesis and expand on in the text of the paper.Summary – a brief statement that presents or recaps the main points in a concise form. Conclusion – bring to a close in a logical, reasoned way the ideas that you have supported in your paper. References / Works Cited: Citation – a short note r ecognizing a source of information or of a quoted passage. Works cited – a page at the end of a research composition that lists all the resources that you used. Parenthetical citation – a citation style in which in-text citations must be enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the paragraph, as opposed to the footnote style.Footnote – A brief note at the bottom of a page, or on a separate page at the end of a paper (then usually called an Endnote), explaining or expanding upon a point in the text or indicating the source of a quotation or idea. Research / Term Paper Outline Worksheet Thesis statement: Where will I find information on this topic? Print – Internet – Journals – Interviews – etc. Has the instructor specified where you are to look for information? What resources you are not to use? How many sources you are to use? Key Points – list the key points to investigate based on your thesis statement: 1. . 3. 4. 5. On se parate sheets of paper expand on each of your key points – jotting down additional ideas or beginning to actually write. Summary / Conclusion: On a separate sheet of paper summarize and come to a conclusion on your topic. This is where you are bringing it home and wrapping up the paper. Works cited: List the resources that you have used. Remember to use the style your instructor specified – APA or MLA. Use this outline to begin writing your paper. When you have completed a draft – read, edit and rewrite.

Examining the Stages of Interpersonal Communication Assignment

Examining the Stages of Interpersonal Communication - Assignment Example Someone was playing a prank on him and had taken away his clothes as he was swimming. He did not have a locker there since he was not a member so he had left the clothes on the benches when he went to the pool. It can then be considered that the first meeting was a bit funny and also sad. This was the initiating stage and it was characterized by us meeting in the pool area and the changing rooms and exchanging pleasantries whenever we could. I had the idea that he wanted to be my friend since he always said hello whenever we met and seemed more comfortable putting his clothes and bag near where I kept mine. When he asked me for my number so that he could get in touch and we could be swimming together, I knew that he wanted us to be friends. In the experimenting stage of our relationship, we began calling each other and planning for swimming together. This stage was definitely experimenting since we were always trying to know more about each other. I particularly wanted to find out where Tim lived, his hobbies, whether he had brothers and sisters, which school he went to and so much more. Later I came to realize that he also wanted to know the same and this was a way that would help us to reduce uncertainty (Adler & Proctor, 2012, p. 256). At this particular stage, I tried my best to appear as a good person so that Tim would be comfortable being my friend and he even let me know that there had been some guys at the gym that had always bullied him and played pranks on him and that was what had happened the first time we had met. As this stage progressed, we had more time around each other especially when going swimming since I had come to realize that Tim liked swimming the same way that I did. Severally, we visited each others’ houses and in the process I met his parents and siblings and when he came to my place, he got the chance to meet my parents and my brothers too. In this stage, I tried to be as direct as possible and told Tim the things that

Crafting and Executing Strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Crafting and Executing Strategy - Assignment Example † And in this way, questions are answered for each stage. Strategic plan involves the mixture of vision, mission and out of the box thinking. Strategic planning is one of the major management tools managers have to be perfect at. It can offer many benefits for the business, like communicating the main set objectives and plans to the staff, developing a competitive advantage against the rival firms, providing a sense of direction and purpose and communicating the plan of action etc. Without the strategic plan, there will be no direction for the business and this could lead to the business being lost (Olsen, Tse & West 1998). Financial performance could also deter without these plans A mission statement is a precise statement of the business’ core targets and cynosure, framed in such a way to persuade and trigger interest by outside groups and the other stakeholders. The Mission Statement of the hotel that I am the manager with is â€Å"To provide exquisite hospitableness and cordiality to our priceless guests by delivering the finest personal and intuitive services to them.† These statements are not linked to a particular goal, but try to sum up – it describes the aims in an influential and an appealing way. Mission statements can prove to be essential for firms of all sizes. They quickly inform the stakeholders of the business of the main aim and vision are. They can also prove to ignite a spark to the employees and tell the outside groups that the business and its staff have these positive traits. They establish in the view of other stakeholders ‘what the firm is about’ and hence can provide public relations and increase the chances of success for them. While Vision statements are those statements of what the firm would want to acquire and achieve in the long-run. There are some distinctions between the vision and the mission statements. Mission statements are the synopsis of the whole of the purpose of the organization, while a vision statement, on the contrary, tells the picture of the ‘desired future’ and how the business will look if it is successful in accomplishing its mission. The vision statement of my hotel is â€Å"We will be recognized by our superior hospitality services, selectively franchising and flawless management. Introducing newness in our every assistance will also provide the platform for our goodwill.† There is a simple link between the concepts of vision statement, mission statement and strategic planning. Without the focal point brought by the vision and mission statements, planning new strategies and stance in order to give direction to the company will not be helpful as there is no central idea and the business could get lost in heading to the goals. These statements can prevent the firm from drifting away from the ambitions of the organization. It is really critical that both vision and mission statement are not ‘artistry of words’ so that they impress the people or customers, but also they are relevant to the business, understood by the staff and then are evolved into important strategic actions. Operational objectives

Based on public health role in flu epidemic, identify one ethical Research Paper

Based on public health role in flu epidemic, identify one ethical consideration and one cultural consideration for a public health response. What is the nurse's role in address each of these - Research Paper Example Moreover, the paper will demonstrate the role of a nurse in each of the considerations. Being prepared for flu epidemic is crucial since it ensures that the public health system can mitigate the effects of the pandemic. However, certain ethical and cultural considerations must be deliberated on while deciding the appropriate measures. Nurses play an important role in the response to flu pandemic. Understanding the ethical and cultural considerations as well as the role of nurse is thus important (Debruin, 2012). One ethical consideration involved is the moral commitment to justice and alleviating any barriers that could hinder the some people from accessing healthcare. Ethical guidance to public health response to pandemic should be concerned with the justice. Justice is important while dealing with pandemics and it entails disbursement of common advantages as well as equal sharing of burdens. However, justice should be accompanied by reasonableness in that the caregivers should prioritize the needs of the affected population based on their level of vulnerability. Therefore, the public health system should make a pledge to serve all the affected persons with first priority being given to most affect without ignoring those likely to be affected by the epidemic. In a flu pandemic, nurses have a role of enhancing justice by ensuring that they focus on the needs of the most disadvantaged and give equal priority to all irrespective of their ethical background (Debruin, 2012). During pandemics, the public health personnel have to make decisions, which may conflict individual interest with the community interests. However, the response must take into account cultural considerations to ensure that even the minority groups access adequate care. One cultural consideration is the cultural diversity of a nation (Institute of Medicine, et al., 2008). It is important for the caregivers to

Expanding an MNC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Expanding an MNC - Essay Example However, it was unable to compete with the already established competitors in the market and therefore, the company is now entirely focused on domestic devices required for household work. Overall, Nestfree has around 200 factories in the above mentioned countries with around 150,000 employees worldwide. The range of products provided by Nestfree is as follows: However, the company is now seeking to expand its markets in emerging countries of the world. The emerging markets of China, India and Brazil. The information and relative factors of these countries is provided below. The economic system followed in China is a modern one which is supported by a strong financial services sector. One of the major advantages is that the government has zero debt and the Chinese citizens are savers as compared to the borrowing nature of the citizens of United States. The savings by consumers result in high amounts of capital available for banks to invest. This further boosts up investments in the economy which results in economic growth. The political environment in China is relatively stable as compared to other emerging markets. The political risk involved is quite low however; lower transparency in legal and regulatory policies is a big hurdle for foreign companies. The stability in the political environment is brought about by the one party system which results in lower arguments and therefore, greater peace. The business rules and regulations are not very effective with serious transparency issues. Especially for high tech and commodity companies, the regulatory transparency becomes a major issue as well as a big challenge. The Chinese technological environment is quite advanced and the government plans to make china a world leader in the field of science as well as technology. The aim is to make china self sufficient in terms of technology as a result of effective policies designed by the government. The Chinese

Parts of Human Resources Align and Support the Organization Essay

Parts of Human Resources Align and Support the Organization - Essay Example It is also crucial that these strategies are mutually supportive and complement each other in it’s propose towards the organization. Thus efficient practices of human resource management involve efficient designing and application of HR policies in planning, recruitment, selection, compensation, performance appraisal and training and development too. The importance of these strategies also gets reflected through employee morale, motivation, as well as their efficiency and productivity in the organization. The project brings forth the present human resource conditions in a government contracting company which is primarily a manufacturing enterprise in the infrastructure and energy related sector. The organization manufactures a wide variety of components, namely, boilers, gas generators, gas and hydro turbines, transportation equipments, valves, transmitters etc. The organization incorporates a high quality human resource management culture which gets reflected through its vari ous HRM strategies and policies. ... ction, compensation and benefits, performance appraisals, job designing etc., such that they complement each other and work collectively towards the organization’s purpose and objectives. Based on the analysis the project recommends suitable solutions for the improvement of these strategies with regards to improving employee morale and participation in the organization, enhancing organizational efficiency, productivity and work life balance, and betterment of the culture and climate of the organization too. Parts of Human Resource Systems which support the organization Job Design issues Job designing is particularly done in the organization for meeting requirements of different positions in the organization. However, it is not considered an independent procedure. The importance of job designing is reflected through other human resource management aspects such employee motivation, employee attraction and retention. According to the views of Erven, a well designed job helps in a ccomplishing two important organizational goals. Firstly it helps to get the necessary job completed on time and in a competent manner. It also helps to motivate employees and provide them with challenges at the workplace (Erven, n.d., p.1). Besides serving the purpose of improving motivation and performance, job-design analysis begins by regarding a job from a wide perspective and rapidly moving towards identifying the particular activities required for doing the job. This is particularly done for the purpose of identifying any deficiencies and correcting them which has chances of affecting performance and motivation (Encarnacion, n.d.). An example of job design in the organization will help understand how it complements other HR aspects. Job design for the position of a mechanical engineer in

Modern Tecnological Rivals or partners Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Modern Tecnological Rivals or partners - Essay Example As a result, India has become politically and economically more influential in the region in the past ten years. However, trade among the South East Asian nations and India has not been balanced. In early 2003, trade talks stalled; its trade agreements with individual nations have proceeded smoothly, but with the entire ASEAN group reaching agreement has been difficult. In order for India to accomplish internal reforms, it needs allies and trade with its neighbors (Hong, 2007, p. 129). Smaller economies in the region want to protect themselves from being flooded with cheaper Indian goods, so India has had difficulty leveraging trade agreements with all nations in the region. Smaller economies want balanced trade. China, obviously, has great influence in Asia, not only because of its land mass but because of its position in global politics and economics. China has ramped up trade with everyone across the world and as a result, its economy and clout have increased as India’s has been decreasing. In response, India has increased its relationships with Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, both through the ASEAN and the BIMSTEC coalitions. However, India is not currently powerful enough to threaten these nations’ relationships with China (Hong, 2007, p. 133). For its part, China would prefer to work with India rather than see it rise as a power in its own right. Encouraging interdependent economies and setting aside political differences would stabilize the entire region. Overall, India, China, and the ASEAN nations have similar political views and all three are attempting to increase global trade (Hong, 2007, p. 138). This introduces a competition among them as each entity tries to balance internal growth, regional partnerships, and the need to establish themselves in the global economy. To resolve the situation, it is in the best interests of all to strengthen partnerships. Hong’s

Lai Bahadur Shastri Essay Example for Free

Lai Bahadur Shastri Essay Childhood is the most innocent phase in human life. It is that stage of life when the human foundations are laid for a successful adult life. Many children, instead of spending it in a carefree and fun-loving manner while learning and playing, are scarred and tormented. They hate their childhood and would do anything to get out of the dungeons of being children and controlled and tortured by others. They would love to break-free from this world, but continue to be where they are, not out of choice, but force. This is the true story of child labor. Innocent children are employed by industries and individuals who put them to work under grueling circumstances. They are made to work for long hours in dangerous factory units and sometimes made to carry load even heavier than their own body weight. Then there are individual households that hire children as domestic help and beat and physically torture them when they make a mistake. The children are at times made to starve and are given worn out clothes to wear. Such is the story of millions of children in India painful and yet true. The two primary reasons for the ever-growing social malice of child labor are poverty and lack of education. Poor parents give birth to children thinking them as money-making machines. They carry infants to earn more on the streets from begging. Then as they grow they make them beggars, and eventually sell them to employers. This malady is rampant across the length and breadth of India. The status of the girl child is the key to achieving women’s equality and dignity which is, in many ways, a litmus test of the maturity of a society. Girls are to be the future mothers besides future policy makers and leaders. The importance of women hardly needs emphasis. Woman is the mother of race and is the liaison between the generations. Our culture attaches much importance to women, therefore, India has been symbolized as ‘MOTHER INDIA’. Jawaharlal Nehru once said, â€Å"To awaken the people it is the women who must bye awakened. Once she is on the move the family moves, the village moves, the nation moves.† But we see girls facing discrimination everywhere, in each corner of the world. Now-a-days corruption can be seen everywhere. It is like cancer in public life, which has not become so rampant and perpetuated overnight, but in course of time. A country where leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Patel, Lai Bahadur Shastri and Kamraj have taken birth and led a value-based is now facing the problem of corruption. When we talk of corruption in public life, it covers  corruption in politics, state governments, central governments, business, industry and so on. Public dealing counters in most all government offices are the places where corruption most evident. If anybody does not pay for the work it is sure work wont be done. People have grown insatiable appetite for money in them and they can go to any extent t o get money. Undoubtedly they talk of morality and the importance of value-based life but that is for outer show. Their inner voice is something else. It is always crying for money. It has been seen the officers who are deputed to look into the matters of corruption turn out to be corrupt. Our leaders too are not less corrupt. Thus the network of corruption goes on as usual and remains undeterred. Corruption is seen even in the recruitment department where appointments are ensured through reliable middle agencies. Nexus between politicians and bureaucrats works in a very sophisticated manner. Nexus does also exist between criminals and police. A total war against these and a few other evils like drinking and smoking is of utmost necessity. There is legislation against these evils but they can be effectively checked only if the people decide to check them.

History Of The Film Amazing Grace Theology Religion Essay

History Of The Film Amazing Grace Theology Religion Essay The movie Amazing Grace is all about an extraordinary man named William Wilberforce. In 1784 when he was twenty-one years old, Wilberforce was elected into the British House of Common where he became a politician. A few years later, William Pitt, a close friend of Wilberforces, became prime minister. Together these two came together and introduced a bill banning slavery. Although Wilberforce has the help of anti-slavery activists, there were many people that supported slavery and as a result the bill was not passed. Unfortunately in 1797 Wilberforce was forced to leave his career in politics due to his poor health so he moved into a country home of one of his friends. Here he then meets a woman named Barbara Spooner. Spooner encourages Wilberforce to not give up his goals so he then launches a second campaign to convince Englands lawmakers to end slave trade. William Wilberforce was a very strong Christian and he put all of his faith and trust in Jesus Christ. Wilberforce had very strong foundational values as can be seen throughout the movie through his actions and choices. Wilberforces faith changed him from being a careless wealthy politician into a public servant that was compassionate and caring towards everyone. He used his gifts and skills in order to help create a better society. Wilberforce was very strong in character as he had very strong morals and always knew the right thing to do. While most of society at that time accepted slavery as being a necessity, Wilberforce did not conform. Most people back then has been brainwashed into believing that slavery was okay, but thats not how Wilberforce thought. He saw that slavery was a cruel and evil thing. He knew that it was against Gods will so he did his best in order to end slavery in England. Unfortunately his bill was struck down, but even this did not stop him. He later came ba ck with another attempt at banning slave trade. Wilberforce obviously had very strong faith and character, and as suspected he was very much a servant and did all that he could in order to abolish slavery. Wilberforce literally did everything that he could do in order to end slavery in England. This introduces another question: why would Wilberforce go into so much trouble for something that didnt affect him? This is because he was an excellent servant. Although Wilberforce himself was not a slave he still saw the harm it was causing and he knew the suffering many people were going through because of it. He saw this and knew that he needed to do all that he could in order to help. Although he may have not reached the desired outcome at first, he did everything that he could and worked extremely hard and in the end he was able to abolish slavery. William Wilberforce was uniquely designed by God and therefore has both numerous strengths and weaknesses. One of Wilberforces strengths was that he was a very strong faith. Although there were many difficulties and struggles that Wilberforce was forced to encounter, he always put his trust and faith in God. This ultimately led to his success in abolishing slavery. Although things got difficult for William he never lost his faith in God and because of this incredible faith and persistence he was then able to abolish slavery in England for good. Wilberforce was very passionate about two main things in his first: God and abolishing slavery. Both of these passions were very closely connected together and they both had major impacts on his life. William believed in God and wanted to do everything that he could for Him, and that is where slavery became involved. William knew that slavery was contrary to Gods will and as a result he dedicated his life to abolishing it, but he knew that he couldnt do it all by himself. Wilberforce had a few friends to help him, but God is where most of the help came from. One major experience that had an impact of Wilberforces life purpose was when his bill was declined the first time. Wilberforce was obviously devastated and didnt know exactly what to do. He then moved out to the country where he was then convinced by Barbara Spooner that he had been fighting for a very noble cause and never should have given up in the first place. In my opinion, this is when Wilberforce truly understood his life calling. Up until this point he had been very passionate about the cause, but now his passion has been restored and is even stronger than it had been before. He then realizes that it is his duty to end slavery and as a result he starts up a second campaign. This campaign is much more successful than his previous one and he ends up abolishing slave trade in England. Overall, William Wilberforce was uniquely designed by Jesus Christ and this c an be seen all throughout his life. Wilberforce was able to do incredible things because of Gods help and these experiences that helped strengthen his faith and trust in God. Because William Wilberforce was uniquely designed, he was different than everyone else. This means that he had his very own unique personal mission or life calling. Wilberforces life calling was to make the world a better place. This included getting rid of slavery in England. God opened his eyes in such a way that Wilberforce was able to see the horror of slavery and all of the tragedies it was causing. Wilberforce then realized that slavery was against Gods will and he did the best that he could to get it abolished. He worked restlessly trying to abolish slavery even though he faced many hardships. When his first bill was not passed Wilberforce was crushed, but that did not stop him. William kept on going even after his bill was struck down. He was definitely discouraged at this point but he didnt give up all hope. He persisted and kept on going with his attempts to abolish slavery. In the end, all of these attempts were successful and slavery was then abolished. William Wilberforc e had finally fulfilled his life calling. Wilberforce was drawn to helping those in need and those who were treated unfairly which is why he was so passionate about making slavery illegal. He knew it was bad and he wanted to make the world a better place. Wilberforces vision of a better world was not only one without slavery, but also one where people had freedoms and liberties. He was a very strong Christian and as a result he wanted the world to reflect Gods desires for mankind. He wanted everyone to serve God and each other so that the world would be a less sinful place. Wilberforces main strategy for accomplishing these goals was by putting all of his faith and trust in God. William knew that he couldnt accomplish anything by himself and the he needed help. This help came from God and from numerous other individuals that helped him. He put all of his trust in God even when it seemed like there was nothing that could be done. Because William was able to completely rely on God, Go d was able to work through him and accomplish what needed to be done. William, with Gods help, was able to then abolish slavery and make the world a better place. One very obvious roadblock that William Wilberforce had to overcome was when his first bill was rejected. Wilberforce was very frustrated at this point and he started to lose all hope. Wilberforce became sick and as a result he moved into one of his friends country house. He lived her a while as he was recovering, but then he met someone very special. This need friend of his was Barbara Spooner, and they shared very similar views. Spooner also believed that slavery was a bad thing and that it needed to go. She then encouraged Wilberforce to try again and she told him he should have never given up such a noble cause. Finally, Wilberforce started to overcome this gigantic roadblock in his life. It took much encouragement from Barbara as well as a large amount of faith in God. Wilberforce was already discouraged so he ended up relying on God more than ever and as a result God let his will be done and Wilberforce was successful in the end. Wilberforce put all of his trust and faith in God, and the way that he lived out his life and trusted in God is a great example for the rest of the world. William worked tirelessly and devoted his life to a cause because he knew that it was wrong and contrary to Gods will. As a result he did everything that he could in order to abolish slavery. He went through many struggles and difficulties, but never gave up. This is a great example of how we should be leading out lives. Although times may get tough in our lives, we need to realize what Gods will is a fight through it. Life will throw many roadblocks in our way and sometimes they will seem impossible to overcome. However, if we put all of our faith in God we will then be able to overcome even the most impossible struggles and make the world a better place. William Wilberforce went through many difficulties and struggles in his life, but he never managed to lose sight of what he was doing it for. He was not only doing it to help tho se that were enslaved, but also to make the world a godlier place. He saw that the world was a very sinful place and he sought to change that. This is how we all need to live our lives. We should see the sinfulness in the world and despise it. We should then do everything that we can to destroy evil and make the world a better place so that through everything we do we serve God and do His will.

Examining Motivational Strategies in Multinational Organisations

Examining Motivational Strategies in Multinational Organisations Motivation is next to directing/leading. Managers can motivate their subordinates while guiding them. Motivating means encouraging people to take more initiative and interest in the work assigned. It is an art of getting things done willingly from others. Motivation avoids clashes and non-cooperation and brings harmony, unity and co-operative outlook among employees. Managers have to work as motivators of their subordinates. For this, effective communication, proper appreciation of work done and positive encouragement are necessary and useful. Motivation is inspiring and encouraging people to work more and contribute for achieving the objectives of the company The creation of the desire and willingness to perform the job efficiently is known as motivation Motivation is a psychological and sociological concept as it relates to human behavior and human relations. It is the most fundamental and all pervasive concept of psychology. For motivation, sweet words are useful but are certainly not adequate. Motivation basically relates to human needs, desires and expectations. In other words, these factors suggest the measures which can be used for the motivation of employees. In motivation, efforts should be made to satisfy the different needs of employees so that they will be satisfied, happy and away from tensions. This creates favorable environment because of which employees take more interest and initiative in the work and perform their jobs efficiently. Motivation is a technique of creating attraction for the job. It is encouraging employees for better performance in order to achieve the goals of an Organization. The process of motivation is a continuous one (circular one) and is beneficial to both employer and employees. It is a key to improve work performance of employees. The term motive is derived from the Latin word emovere which means to move or to activate. Motivation is the act of making someone to act in the desired manner through positive encouragement. It is through motivation that employees can be induced to work more, to earn more and to give better results to the Organization. 2. Definitions of Motivation. According to W. G. Scot, Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish the desired goals. According to Michael J. jucius, Motivation is the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course of action, to push the right button to get a desired results. 3. Features or Characteristics of Motivation. Psychological Process: Motivation is a psychological process useful for encouraging employees to take more interest in the work assigned. It relates to human relations. Initiative by Manager: The initiative for motivation is by the manager by offering guidance and also by other methods like appreciation of good work or offering incentives. Management has to adopt special measures for motivating employees. They include monetary as well as non-monetary. Continuous activity: It is a continuous and circular process. Subordinates need motivation in a continuous manner as their needs and expectations change from time to time. A manager has to study the needs of workers and use the technique of motivation accordingly. The process of motivation must be made a regular and continuous one. Goal-oriented and action-oriented: Motivation diverts human behavior towards certain goals. Attainment of organizational and individual goals depends on the motivational plans. Broad concept: Motivation covers needs, human relations and satisfaction of employees. For employee motivation, monetary and other incentives need to be offered. Job satisfaction is one such need and is useful for their motivation. Essence of management process: Motivation is an essential function of a manager. He has to motivate his subordinates for achieving organizational objectives. Motivated labour force is an asset of a business unit. Motivated employees bring prosperity to a business unit. Beneficial to employees and management: Motivation offers benefits to employees and Organisation. It avoids crashes and encourages cooperative outlook among employees. Motivation leads to cordial labour-management relations. It provides more profit to management and better welfare to employees. Varied measures available for motivation: For motivation, various monetary and non monetary incentives can be offered to employees by the management. Attractive wages, welfare facilities, job satisfaction, appreciation of good work, encouragement to self-development, job security and fair treatment are some measures of motivating employees. Motivation is different from satisfaction: Motivation implies a drive towards a result while satisfaction involves result already experienced and achieved. When desire is satisfied, employee is motivated. Related to a person in totality: An employee is motivated in totality and not in part. Employees basic needs are interrelated. Management must fulfill all the needs through monetary and non-monetary incentives. 4. Importance of Motivation. Motivation occupies an important place and position in the whole management process. This technique can be used fruitfully for encouraging workers to make positive contribution for achieving organizational objectives. Motivation is necessary as human nature needs some sort of inducement, encouragement or incentive in order to get better performance. Motivation of employees offers may benefits to the Organisation and also to the employees. This suggests the importance of motivating employees. Motivation acts as a technique for improving the performance of employees working at different levels. Motivation of employees is one function which every manager has to perform along with other managerial functions. A manager has to function as a friend and motivator of his subordinates. Motivation is useful in all aspects of life and even our family life. The same is the case with business. This dearly suggests that motivation is extremely important. It is an integral part of management process itself. 5. Advantages of Motivation. (A) Advantages to Management or Organization: Increase in the efficiency and productivity of employees. Motivation ensures a high level performance of employees. Better co-operation from employees and cordial labour-management relations. Reduction in the rate of labour absenteeism and turnover. Reduction in the wastages and industrial accidents. Improvement in the morale of employees. Quick achievement of business/corporate objectives and favorable corporate image. (B) Advantages to Employees or Workers: Employees get various monetary and non-monetary facilities/benefits which provide better life and welfare to them. Security of employment and other benefits due to cordial relations with the management. Job attraction and job satisfaction. Higher status and opportunities of participation in management. Positive approach and outlook of employees towards company, management and superiors. Reduction in the rate of labour turnover which is harmful to employees and management. Better scope for improvement in knowledge and skills of employees. 6. Motivational Factors or Motivational Incentives. (A) Monetary or Financial Incentives: Monetary incentives are offered in terms of money. Such incentives provide more cash or purchasing power to employees. Monetary incentives are extremely attractive to employees (particularly those working at lower levels) as they get the benefit quickly and in concrete terms. At the higher levels of management, non-monetary incentives are more important than monetary incentives. Workers prefer monetary incentives as compared to non-monetary incentives. Managements also offer liberal monetary incentives to all categories of workers. Monetary incentives may be further classified as following:- Individual Monetary Incentives: The benefit of individual monetary incentive is available to concerned worker only. For example, F. W. Taylor suggested differential piece rate system which offers different wage rates to different workers as per their production efficiency. Different incentive wage plans are the examples of individual monetary incentives as the benefit is offered individually to every worker. Here, a worker is paid as per his efficiency, productivity or as per the production given by him. Efficient/sincere workers give more production and get higher reward in terms of wage payment. Group Monetary Incentives: In the group monetary incentives, the monetary benefit is not given individually but to a group of workers or to all workers in the Organisation. Workers have to work jointly/collectively as a team in order to secure the benefits of group monetary incentives. Bonus payment, pension, P.F, production/productivity bonus, profit sharing, etc. are the examples of group monetary incentives. For the employer/management, group incentives are more important as they offer many benefits to the management. (B) Non-monetary Incentives for Employee Motivation: Job security and job enrichment: Job security is useful for the motivation of employees. Such security keeps the employee away from the tension of becoming unemployed. Job enrichment provides an opportunity for greater recognition and advancement. Job enrichment refers to redesign of jobs. Fair treatment to employees: Employer should give attention to the needs, difficulties and grievances of employees. Small work groups and effective communication are useful for solving the problems of workers. Employees must be given decent treatment. They will be co-operative only when they are treated with sympathy and love, affection and dignity. Employees should also be given help in personal matters. Recognition of good work: Recognition of good work at an appropriate time gives encouragement to employees to show better performance in future. As an appreciation of good work, prizes, rewards, promotions, etc. should be given. Encouragement to self-development and career development: Employees should be given varied training facilities. Training facilitates self-development and also provides opportunities for career development. Every employee has a desire to grow, develop and rise higher. This desire should be exploited fully for motivating employees. For this, training as well as management development programmes should be introduced. Delegation of authority: Due to delegation of authority, a subordinate employee feels that superior has faith in him and also in his ability to use authority in a proper manner. Employees get mental satisfaction when authority is given to them. They take interest and initiative in the work and try to prove that they are competent to work at the higher levels. Thus, delegation of authority becomes a motivating factor. Congenial working conditions: It is a non financial incentive for motivation. Employees should be given various facilities and conveniences at the work place. The work environment should be pleasant and safe. This creates desire to work efficiently. Helpful attitude of management: The helpful attitude of management towards its employees creates a sense of affinity for the Organisation. Fair treatment to workers creates better understanding among workers. Cordial industrial relations also motivate employees. Thus, enlightened and pro-employee attitude of management acts as a motivating factor. Fair opportunity of promotion: Fair opportunity of promotion to all eligible workers is one more method useful for motivating employees. They take interest in the work as they feet that they will be rewarded in the form of promotions. Training facility should be provided to employees in order to make them eligible for promotion. Labour participation in management: Labour participation in management is useful for the motivation of employees. Workers get higher status and better scope for expressing their views through such participation. Even the formation of quality circles or joint management councils is useful for motivating employees. Designation and status: When an employee is provided with a better designation, it adds to his status. Employees are proud to reveal their attractive and high-sounding designations. 7. Theories of Motivation. A. H. Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory. Hertzbergs Motivation Hygiene Theory (Two Factor Theory). Douglas McGregors Theory X and Theory Y. McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory. 8. Elton Mayos Hawthorne Experiments 1927-1936. The most famous of all human relations movement and research were Hawthorne Experiments. So named because they were carried on in Hawthorne plant of western Electric Company of Chicago in USA. Dr. Elton Mayo led a team from Harward University which cooperated with western electric co. in the period 1927-1936 to carry out Hawthorne Experiments. They identified following details. Recognized the importance of employee attitudes such as understanding voluntary co-operations and willing dedication in accomplishment of organizational goals. Found that employee performance is very much influenced by his attitude towards his job, associates and management. Proved that organizational firm can gain only when its employees are satisfied contented in their jobs. Pointed out that any change to be should be made should be explained and its meaning should be clear to employees. The fact that change is logical is not enough because employees may not appreciate the logic. Explored much of information on group behavior. Thus have provided the basis for much of what we know about getting along with all, problem employees in particular. Employee Motivation: Theory and practice The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to motivate employees. But thats easier said than done! Motivation practice and theory are difficult subjects, touching on several disciplines. In spite of enormous research, basic as well as applied, the subject of motivation is not clearly understood and more often than not poorly practiced. To understand motivation one must understand human nature itself. And there lies the problem! Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An understanding and appreciation of this is a prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective management and leadership. These articles on motivation theory and practice concentrate on various theories regarding human nature in general and motivation in particular. Included are articles on the practical aspects of motivation in the workplace and the research that has been undertaken in this field, notably by Douglas McGregor (theory y), Frederick Herzberg (two factor motivation hygiene theory,) Abraham Maslow (theory z, hierarchy of needs), Elton Mayo (Hawthorne Experiments) Chris Argyris Rensis Likert and David McClelland (achievement motivation.) Why study and apply employee motivation principles? Quite apart from the benefit and moral value of an altruistic approach to treating colleagues as human beings and respecting human dignity in all its forms, research and observations show that well motivated employees are more productive and creative. The inverse also holds true. The schematic below indicates the potential contribution the practical application of the principles this paper has on reducing work content in the organization. Motivation is the key to performance improvement There is an old saying you can take a horse to the water but you cannot force it to drink; it will drink only if its thirsty so with people. They will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do. Whether it is to excel on the workshop floor or in the ivory tower they must be motivated or driven to it, either by themselves or through external stimulus. Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. If no, they can be motivated, for motivation is a skill which can and must be learnt. This is essential for any business to survive and succeed. Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus: Job performance =f(ability)(motivation) Ability in turn depends on education, experience and training and its improvement is a slow and long process. On the other hand motivation can be improved quickly. There are many options and an uninitiated manager may not even know where to start. As a guideline, there are broadly seven strategies for motivation. Positive reinforcement / high expectations Effective discipline and punishment Treating people fairly Satisfying employees needs Setting work related goals Restructuring jobs Base rewards on job performance These are the basic strategies, though the mix in the final recipe will vary from workplace situation to situation. Essentially, there is a gap between an individuals actual state and some desired state and the manager tries to reduce this gap. Motivation is, in effect, a means to reduce and manipulate this gap. It is inducing others in a specific way towards goals specifically stated by the motivator. Naturally, these goals as also the motivation system must conform to the corporate policy of the organization. The motivational system must be tailored to the situation and to the organization. In one of the most elaborate studies on employee motivation, involving 31,000 men and 13,000 women, the Minneapolis Gas Company sought to determine what their potential employees desire most from a job. This study was carried out during a 20 year period from 1945 to 1965 and was quite revealing. The ratings for the various factors differed only slightly between men and women, but both groups considered security as the highest rated factor. The next three factors were; advancement type of work company proud to work for Surprisingly, factors such as pay, benefits and working conditions were given a low rating by both groups. So after all, and contrary to common belief, money is not the prime motivator. (Though this should not be regarded as a signal to reward employees poorly or unfairly.) Motivation theorists and their theories (1 of 2) Although the process of management is as old as history, scientific management as we know it today is basically a twentieth century phenomenon. Also, as in some other fields, practice has been far ahead of theory. This is still true in the field of management, contrary to the situation in some of the pure sciences. For instance, Albert Einstein, formulates a theory, which is later proved by decades of intensive research and experimentation. Not so in the field of management. In fact this field has been so devoid of real fundamental work so far, that Herbert A. Simon is the first management theoretician to win the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1978. His contribution itself gives a clue to the difficulty, bordering on impossibility, of real fundamental work in this field concerned with people. In order to arrive at a correct decision, the manager must have all the information necessary relevant to the various factors and all the time in the world to analyze the same. This is seldom, if ever, the case. Both the information available and the time at the managers disposal are limited, but he or she must make a decision. And the decision is, therefore, not the optimum one but a satisficing one in effect, a satisfactory compromise under the real conditions prevailing in the management arena. Traditional theory X This can best be ascribed to Sigmund Freud who was no lover of people, and was far from being optimistic. Theory X assumes that people are lazy; they hate work to the extent that they avoid it; they have no ambition, take no initiative and avoid taking any responsibility; all they want is security, and to get them to do any work, they must be rewarded, coerced, intimidated and punished. This is the so-called stick and carrot philosophy of management. If this theory were valid, managers will have to constantly police their staff, whom they cannot trust and who will refuse to cooperate. In such an oppressive and frustrating atmosphere, both for the manager and the managed, there is no possibility of any achievement or any creative work. But fortunately, as we know, this is not the case. Theory Y Douglas McGregor This is in sharp contrast to theory X. McGregor believed that people want to learn and that work is their natural activity to the extent that they develop self-discipline and self-development. They see their reward not so much in cash payments as in the freedom to do difficult and challenging work by themselves. The managers job is to dovetail the human wish for self-development into the organizations need for maximum productive efficiency. The basic objectives of both are therefore met and with imagination and sincerity, the enormous potential can be tapped. Does it sound too good to be true? It could be construed, by some, that Theory Y management is soft and slack. This is not true and the proof is in the pudding, for it has already proved its worth in the USA and elsewhere. For best results, the persons must be carefully selected to form a homogeneous group. A good leader of such a group may conveniently absent from group meetings so they can discuss the matters freely and help select and groom a new leader. The leader does no longer hanker after power, lets people develop freely, and may even (it is hoped) enjoy watching the development and actualization of people, as if, by themselves. Everyone, and most of all the organization, gains as a result. Theory Z Abraham Maslow This is a refreshing change from the theory X of Freud, by a fellow psychologist, Abraham Maslow. Maslow totally rejects the dark and dingy Freudian basement and takes us out into the fresh, open, sunny and cheerful atmosphere. He is the main founder of the humanistic school or the third force which holds that all the good qualities are inherent in people, at least, at birth, although later they are gradually lost. Maslows central theme revolves around the meaning and significance of human work and seems to epitomize Voltaires observation in Candide, work banishes the three great evils -boredom, vice and poverty. The great sage Yajnavalkya explains in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that by good works a man becomes holy, by evil works evil. A mans personality is the sum total of his works and that only his works survive a man at death. This is perhaps the essence of Maslows hierarchy of needs theory, as it is more commonly know. Maslows major works include the standard textbook (in collaboration with Mittlemann), Principles of Abnormal Psychology (1941), a seminal paper, A Theory of Human Motivation (1943) and the book, Eupsychian Management (pronounced yew-sigh-keyan) published in 1965. Maslows theory of human motivation is, in fact, the basis of McGregors theory Y briefly described above. The basic human needs, according to Maslow, are: physiological needs (Lowest) safety needs; love needs; esteem needs; and self-actualization needs (Highest) Mans behavior is seen as dominated by his unsatisfied needs and he is a perpetually wanting animal, for when one need is satisfied he aspires for the next higher one. This is, therefore, seen as an ongoing activity, in which the man is totally absorbed in order to attain perfection through self-development. The highest state of self-actualization is characterized by integrity, responsibility, magnanimity, simplicity and naturalness. Self-actualizers focus on problems external to themselves. His prescription for human salvation is simple, but not easy: Hard work and total commitment to doing well the job that fate or personal destiny calls you to do, or any important job that calls for doing. Maslow has had his share of critics, but he has been able to achieve a refreshing synthesis of divergent and influential philosophies of: Marx economic and physical needs; Freud physical and love needs; Adler esteem needs; Goldstein self-actualization. Frederick Herzberg Hygiene / Motivation Theory This is based on analysis of the interviews of 200 engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area in the USA. According to this theory, people work first and foremost in their own self-enlightened interest, for they are truly happy and mentally healthy through work accomplishment. Peoples needs are of two types: Animal Needs (hygiene factors) Supervision Interpersonal relations Working conditions Salary Human Needs (motivators) Recognition Work Responsibility Advancement Unsatisfactory hygiene factors can act as de-motivators, but if satisfactory, their motivational effect is limited. The psychology of motivation is quite complex and Herzberg has exploded several myths about motivators such as: shorter working week; increasing wages; fringe benefits; sensitivity / human relations training; communication. As typical examples, saying please to shop-floor workers does not motivate them to work hard, and telling them about the performance of the company may even antagonize them more. Herzberg regards these also as hygiene factors, which, if satisfactory, satisfy animal needs but not human needs. Chris Argyris According to Argyris, organization needs to be redesigned for a fuller utilization of the most precious resource, the workers, in particular their psychological energy. The pyramidal structure will be relegated to the background, and decisions will be taken by small groups rather than by a single boss. Satisfaction in work will be more valued than material rewards. Work should be restructured in order to enable individuals to develop to the fullest extent. At the same time work will become more meaningful and challenging through self-motivation. Rensis Likert Likert identified four different styles of management: exploitative-authoritative; benevolent-authoritative; consultative; participative. The participative system was found to be the most effective in that it satisfies the whole range of human needs. Major decisions are taken by groups themselves and this results in achieving high targets and excellent productivity. There is complete trust within the group and the sense of participation leads to a high degree of motivation. Fred Luthans Luthans advocates the so-called contingency approach on the basis that certain practices work better than others for certain people and certain jobs. As an example, rigid, clearly defined jobs, authoritative leadership and tight controls lead in some cases to high productivity and satisfaction among workers. In some other cases just the opposite seems to work. It is necessary, therefore, to adapt the leadership style to the particular group of workers and the specific job in hand. Victor Vroom Vrooms expectancy theory is an extension of the contingency approach. The leadership style should be tailored to the particular situation and to the particular group. In some cases it appears best for the boss to decide and in others the group arrives at a consensus. An individual should also be rewarded with what he or she perceives as important rather than what the manager perceives. For example, one individual may value a salary increase, whereas another may, instead, value promotion. This theory contributes an insight into the study of employee motivation by explaining how individual goals influence individual performance. We have discussed above only a selection of the motivation theories and thoughts of the various proponents of the human behavior school of management. Not included here are, among others, the thoughts of: Seebohm Rowntree labor participation in management; Elton Mayo the Hawthorne Experiments; Kurt Lewin group dynamics; force field theory; David McClelland achievement motivation; George Humans the human group; William Whyte the organization man. What does it all add up to? Back to square one? Yes, indeed, the overall picture is certainly confusing. This is not surprising, for the human nature and human mind defy a clear-cut model, mathematical or otherwise. In some of the theories and thoughts presented, however, one can see some glimpses of the person and how, perhaps, he or she could be motivated. This is rewarding in itself. But, as noted earlier, practice has been ahead of theory in this field, so let us now move to the practical side of management of human behavior and motivation in the workplace. Application of employee motivation theory to the workplace Management literature is replete with actual case histories of what does and what does not motivate people. Presented here is a tentative initial broad selection of the various practices that have been tried in order to draw lessons for the future. Stick or carrot approach? The traditional Victorian style of strict discipline and punishment has not only failed to deliver the goods, but it has also left a mood of discontent amongst the working class. Punishment appears to have produced negative rather than positive results and has increased the hostility between them (the management) and us (the workers). In contrast to this, the carrot approach, involving approval, praise and recognition of effort has markedly improved the work atmosphere, leading to more productive work places and giving workers greater job satisfaction. Managers motivation toolkit The managers main task is to develop a productive work place, with and through those he or she is in charge of. The manager should motivate his or her team, both individually and collectively so that a productive work place is maintained and developed and at the same time employees derive satisfaction from their jobs. This may appear somewhat contradictory, but it seems to work. The main tools in the managers kitbag for motivating the team are: approval, praise and recognition trust, respect and high expectations loyalty, given that it may be received removing organizational barriers that stand in the way of individual and group performance (smooth business processes, systems, methods and resources see outline team building program) job enrichment good communications financial incentives These are arranged in order of importance and it is interesting to note that cash is way down the ladder of motivators. Lets look at a couple of examples taken from real life situations. The Swedish shipbuilding company, Kockums, turned a 15 million dollar loss into a 100 million dollar profit in the course of ten years due entirely to a changed perception of the workforce brought about by better motivation. At Western Electric there was a dr

Comparing the powerful experiences of, You Will Be Hearing Form Us Essa

Comparing the powerful experiences of, You Will Be Hearing Form Us Shortly and Lucozade. The powerful experiences in both â€Å"Lucozade† and â€Å"You Will Be Hearing From Us Shortly† are dramatic in their own ways. In â€Å"YWBHFUS† the interviewee is the person you fell sorry for because there are sarcastically being bullied, whereas in â€Å"Lucozade† the powerful experience is the death of her mother. The poem â€Å"YWBHFUS† really makes interviewer means, he/she makes the â€Å"victim† feel really embarrassed and ashamed by saying things like â€Å"Might they, Perhaps, find your appearance disturbing?† This is very rude question and if you are quite shy and embarrassed it does become a rhetorical question. This type of question would really make the person fell bad and put them on the defensive side, t...

Misconceptions and Different Forms of Plagiarism :: Ethical Issues, Copyright Law, Writing

Misconceptions about Plagiarism Cheating and stealing are two of the many words describing plagiarism. Plagiarism is a common misconception because people do not understand all the meanings of it, do not know the techniques to avoid it, and have not come to realize that it undermines academic integrity. This misconception involves the widespread variety of definitions on the topic plagiarism. Plagiarism is a word with many meanings. One definition means to use another’s production without crediting the source. Another definition is to steal and pass off the ideas or words of another as one’s own. Plagiarism ranges from failing to put a quotation in quotation marks to stealing a passing off work. â€Å"Minimal amount of plagiarism is very common in the educational sector where person do plagiarism by substituting the synonyms and editing the original text† (Kumar 1). Terms like â€Å"copying† and borrowing† can disguise the seriousness of plagiarism. People often get confused about plagiarizing because the meanings can also get them mixed up and frustrated. â€Å"In sum, plagiarism can be a very serious form of ethical misconduct† (ORI 1). That is how plagiarism’s definitions can change one’s perspective about it. This misconception often occurs because people do not understand the styles of writing to avoid it. Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided though. â€Å"Plagiarism can vary in its extent based on the amount of plagiarism† (Kumar 1). The different styles of writing are very helpful to avoiding plagiarism. The certain style of writing techniques a person uses to avoid plagiarism reveals the writer’s own voice. It also pertains to the type of audience it would relate to. Some styles of writing include how the person uses their sentence formation. Some examples are the loose sentence, the periodic sentence, or the balanced sentence. Other styles of writing include diction. Diction pertains to the writer’s style and mode of their writing. The styles of writing can be humorous, general, metaphorical, philosophical, abstract, or concrete. Punctuation is a big part of a writer’s style because it expresses the writer’s mood or action. â€Å"Although plagiarism can take many forms there are two major types in scholarly writing: plagiarism of ideas and plagiarism of text† (ORI 1). That is how using different styles of writing can influence you to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism occurs when people do not understand the emphasis on the originality of the work. Misconceptions and Different Forms of Plagiarism :: Ethical Issues, Copyright Law, Writing Misconceptions about Plagiarism Cheating and stealing are two of the many words describing plagiarism. Plagiarism is a common misconception because people do not understand all the meanings of it, do not know the techniques to avoid it, and have not come to realize that it undermines academic integrity. This misconception involves the widespread variety of definitions on the topic plagiarism. Plagiarism is a word with many meanings. One definition means to use another’s production without crediting the source. Another definition is to steal and pass off the ideas or words of another as one’s own. Plagiarism ranges from failing to put a quotation in quotation marks to stealing a passing off work. â€Å"Minimal amount of plagiarism is very common in the educational sector where person do plagiarism by substituting the synonyms and editing the original text† (Kumar 1). Terms like â€Å"copying† and borrowing† can disguise the seriousness of plagiarism. People often get confused about plagiarizing because the meanings can also get them mixed up and frustrated. â€Å"In sum, plagiarism can be a very serious form of ethical misconduct† (ORI 1). That is how plagiarism’s definitions can change one’s perspective about it. This misconception often occurs because people do not understand the styles of writing to avoid it. Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided though. â€Å"Plagiarism can vary in its extent based on the amount of plagiarism† (Kumar 1). The different styles of writing are very helpful to avoiding plagiarism. The certain style of writing techniques a person uses to avoid plagiarism reveals the writer’s own voice. It also pertains to the type of audience it would relate to. Some styles of writing include how the person uses their sentence formation. Some examples are the loose sentence, the periodic sentence, or the balanced sentence. Other styles of writing include diction. Diction pertains to the writer’s style and mode of their writing. The styles of writing can be humorous, general, metaphorical, philosophical, abstract, or concrete. Punctuation is a big part of a writer’s style because it expresses the writer’s mood or action. â€Å"Although plagiarism can take many forms there are two major types in scholarly writing: plagiarism of ideas and plagiarism of text† (ORI 1). That is how using different styles of writing can influence you to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism occurs when people do not understand the emphasis on the originality of the work.

Latino Culture Related to Purnell Model Essay

Cultural competence is the ability to interact well with people of different cultural backgrounds (Rundle, 2002). It provides the best ways of meeting the needs of diverse patient population which is always on the increase, as well as ways of effectively advocating for them. This means that cultural competence has the benefit of enabling nurses to deliver services that respect and effectively respond to health beliefs and practice needs of diverse patients. Through the process of globalization, nurses are moving to places of nursing shortage to offer their knowledge and skills beyond their home country (Campbell, 2003). In this case, information about culture, ethnicity and race becomes important to nursing profession and health care. This paper examines the culture of Latino’s under the guidelines of Purnell’s Model of cultural competency. It looks at issues relating to health promotion, disease prevention and management factors affecting health which are basically the aims of community health nursing. The Purnell model is a model that was developed to provide and organize framework for nurses to use as cultural assessment tool. The model is a concept where all people have been represented at various levels. They range from global society, community, family and the individual and I will utilize this model to explore the Latino community. Heritage/Culture selected Latino includes any person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, South American, Central American or other Spanish culture regardless of race (Crouch, 2004). Their origin can be viewed in different perspectives including country of birth of the person or person’s parents before their emigration, heritage, nationality group or lineage. Latino may be of any race, including Black, White, Asian and Native American. The reason for their migration to new places include availability of work, housing from friends and families which had already settled in new places, availability of bilingual education, better living conditions, and a better quality of life. Some of the occupations that have been associated with Latino include restaurants, construction, and factories. Communication Language is considered the most important characteristic of any culture and within the Latino community the dominant language that is spoken is Spanish, although it has been found that the younger Latino population has made English their preferred language of use. As such, Spanish speakers are scarce among the general population and this could be a barrier to the success of immigrants who do not speak English well. As regards nonverbal communication, maintaining eye contact can be interpreted as intimidating. Latino social norms give emphasis to the importance of communication in interpersonal relationships. Latino’s tend to have an indirect communication style. Respect is highly valued and shown by using formal titles and by being very polite and all members of the family take part in this. Family roles and organization The culture of Latinos is socialistically characterized by dominant cooperative group activities. While working in a group not all are expected to do equal share and not working is not looked at as an offensive behavior. Responsibilities are shared among the community and the whole group is held accountable for its actions. Harmony and cooperation have been emphasized and there is little room for individual function. The father or the oldest male relative is given the greatest power. The women, on the other hand, are expected to submit to these men. As for child rearing, grandparents play a vital role in this process in imparting moral values to children, for instance, regarding good marriage practices. Divorce is unacceptable and the petitioners could be treated as outcasts. Workforce Most of the occupations that are associated with Latino’s include those in hotel and restaurant, construction and factories. However, it is worth noting that a great deal of Latino’s are private wage and salary workers and many others employed as chief executives, physicians and surgeons, teachers, lawyers and reporters. With regard to women, their primary role is to fully participate in the Hispanic culture and keep the family together. Bio-cultural ecology When it comes to identifying the Latino’s population by a type of skin color most would consider themselves as Caucasian while a few identify themselves as Black. Many others associate themselves with indigenous race while others are increasingly identifying themselves as â€Å"other†. Their origins range from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Guatemala. Notable differences among the Latino groups center on the aspects of language refinement, educational status, cultural values and attitudes toward mental health treatment (Brice, 2001). I found that an America Latino’s are prone to illnesses such as COPD, diabetes, asthma and obesity. Diabetes and heart disease are great in Latinos then the non-Latin population is attributed to lifestyles difference such as the intake of fatty foods. It is very difficult to detect some illnesses due to their biological variations of individuals from the Latino communities. Some illnesses take time before they are detected and effectively treated and that is why there is no specific genetic disease associated with the Latino community. But research has been known to find cases of sickle cell diseases as well as cystic fibrosis in these individuals. Sickle cell disease is found in 1 out of 24 Latino’s while 1out of 46 Latinos is believed to have cystic fibrosis. High risk behaviors Poverty and high drop-out rates have resulted in high drug use cases and unsafe sexual practices among the Latino’s. Findings have revealed that Latino students of 12th grade registered highest rate of use of illicit drugs such as crack and heroin. However, older Latino’s registered lower drug use compared to other races. Case studies have revealed that the use of seatbelts was least among the Latino’s, therefore increasing the risks of crash fatality. Nutrition Food has a very important role in the culture of Latino’s. In some cultures, food is given as a combination of food and herbs either when hot or cold. Typically, good appetite is linked to good health. The food preferences of children are respected and they are not forced to eat what they don’t want. There’s a belief that a child might fall sick if given food of the wrong temperature. Mothers always withhold food that might cause illness to children. Experience has made them identify a list of harmful foods and this is passed along from generation to generation (Brice, 2001). Pregnancy and child bearing practices The pregnant women are told what to do according to what their culture says, resulting in lower participation in their own health care. These women prefer that their mothers attend to them during their labor (Noble & Lacasa, 1990). Pregnancy is treated as a hot condition; hence foods characterized as hot are avoided. This might not be a good practice because proteins, which are considered hot, are avoided by these women. Death rituals There is a belief that when a person dies, the person has moved to a different phase of life (Noble & Lacasa, 1990). Even though the person isn’t there physically, they believe the person still lives in spirit. In traditional Latino families, the bulk of care provided for a terminally ill family member is performed by female relatives who are unlikely to ask for outside help to cope with the stress of looking after someone who is close to death. Ideally, spending time with a family member who is close to death allows relatives to resolve outstanding issues within the family. Spirituality Most Latino’s are affiliated to Catholicism with others attending Protestant churches. A small percentage of Latino’s fall under secular domain. Most of them attend churches characterized by many Latino’s attendees and Hispanic clergy where services are offered in Spanish. This religious faith also treats all human life as sacred. Therefore, spiritually if a Latino feels pain or illness arise this may be seen as a test of the individual’s and the family’s religious faith. Heath care practices and health care practitioner Latino’s have retained their traditional health practices, although the use of Western medicine is more prevalent. The result of this is that modern health care practices such as screening tests and use of preventive health care measures haven’t been adopted. This has also been attributed to a lack of health insurance which results in fewer visits to medical practitioners. According to my findings â€Å"physical and mental illness have mostly been attributed to an imbalance between the person and the environment, with influences being emotional, spiritual and social state† (Campbell, 2003). Conclusion I choose the Latino community to focus on because according to research the Latino’s is one of the ethnic cultures that is rapidly growing in the United States of America. It is evident that the Latino community is a culture rich group. For a society that is socialistic in nature, its values and beliefs are predictable; their aim is to put people together, which is a good idea. As much as these beliefs are accepted and respected, some of them are obviously retrogressive and should be done away with. For instance, restricting hot foods for pregnant women; this means that most of them will lack proteins. It is ultimately up to the nurses and the people to understand, and respect the differences that exist between them so that they respect each other’s views in the end. My reaction to their belief is I am glad that I am not considered a part of their culture. I think it is unfair that the women take on a weak role. I am a strong, outspoken, competent, independent individual. I love my family and I will do anything for them but there has to be boundaries. Reference Brice, A. (2001). The Latino child: Speech, language, culture and education. (1st ed., pp. 64-77). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Campbell, C.R. (2003). Two eagles in the sun: A guide to U.S Hispanic culture. (3rd ed., pp. 26-38). Houston, Texas: Two Eagles Pr. Crouch, N. (2004). Mexicans & Americans: Cracking the culture code. London, England: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Noble, J., & Lacasa, J. (1990). The Hispanic way: Aspects of behavior, attitudes and customs in the Spanish-speaking world. (1st ed., pp. 46-58). Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books. Purnell, L. (2008). Guide to culturally competent health care (Purnell, guide to culturally competent healthcare). (2nd ed., pp. 66-78). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: F.A. Davis Company. Rundle, A. (2002). Cultural competence in health care: A practical guide. (2nd ed., pp. 82-90). Hoboken, New Jersey: Jossey-Bass.

”Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes Essay

Often times, people encounter problems in their lives and need advice and inspiration in order to maintain a sense of optimism. By utilizing figurative language and imagery, Langston Hughes’s poem, â€Å"Mother to Son,† illustrates the theme that regardless of the struggles individuals may encounter in their lives, he or she should possess the will power and strength to live resiliently and persevere through adversities with dignity and courage. The speaker’s nurturing tone further compliments the theme, as the mother in the poem is teaching her son a vital message that he must understand and fully integrate into his mindset if he wants to succeed in life. In the first stanza, the speaker is reflecting on her life and the difficulties that she encountered in her lifetime. Discussing how her life â€Å"ain’t been no crystal stair† exemplifies how she experienced stressful situations in order to reach a comfortable place in her own skin, as the crystal stair represents an unproblematic and straightforward path to affluence. The word â€Å"crystal† is particularly used to allow the audience to visualize the lavishness and clarity of this path. She contrasts this path with the coarse one she undertook, which included a myriad of obstacles such as the â€Å"tacks† and â€Å"splinters† she mentions that she had to overcome. Words like â€Å"tacks† and â€Å"splinters† are usually given a negative connotation. Additionally, the â€Å"carpet on the floor† represents protection from these obstacles, since carpet is soft and provides individuals with comfort. Unfortunately, she was deprived of this luxury, and had to face them â€Å"bare† with no comfort whatsoever. Also, based on the time period in which the poem was written, it can be assumed that she experienced racial discrimination which further contributed to her hardships. This creates the image of woman in a cold, unfamiliar world, and depicts the isolation she must have felt, as well as the misfortune that plagued her life, yet she persevered and carried on.

Background & The Evolution of the Internet

The Internet has undergone explosive growth since the first connections were established in 1969. This growth has necessitated an extremely large system scale-up that has required new developments in the technology of information transfer. These new developments allow simplified solutions to the problem of how to reliably get information from point A to point B. Unfortunately, the rapid pace of the required technological advancement has not allowed for optimal solutions to the scale-up problem.Rather, these solutions appear to have been the most convenient and practical at the time. Thus, the information transfer technology of today’s internet does not guarantee the ‘best path’ for data transmission. The definition of the best path may mean the most cost effective or the fastest path or some path based on optimization of multiple protocols, but the current technology used in the internet cannot guarantee that the best path for data transmission will be chosen. The result is a reduction in economic and system resource efficiency. The Evolution of the InternetThe Internet has become integrated into the economic, technological and security infrastructure of virtually every country in the world. However, the internet had quite a humble beginning. It was originally designed as a back-up military communications network (MILNET) and as a university research communications network (National Science Foundation Network, NFSNET / Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, ARPANET). The original technology developed for these limited systems was not designed for the massive scale-up that has occurred since inception.Moreover, the original design of the internet system was based on the sharing of resources. The recent applications of the internet for commerce and proprietary information transfer processes make resource sharing an undesirable aspect. A more recent development is resource usage based on policies limiting what part of the internet can use a specific service or data transmission line. An Introduction to Networks and Routing What is a network? A network is a group of computers linked together by transmission lines that allow communication between the computers.Some of these computers are the equipment used by people on their desktop. Other computers in the network are computers that are designed only to direct traffic on the network or between different networks. Computer scientists often think of networks as large graphs with lines used to connect dots. The dots are called nodes and correspond to computers and the lines correspond to the transmission lines that connect the computers. The Internet is a giant network of smaller networks, called autonomous systems, that allows computers to be connected around the globe.What is routing? The process of transmitting information from a source computer to a destination computer is called routing. The way this is done can greatly effect how quickly the information is transmitte d between the two computers. What is a router? A router is a computer with more than one connection to the rest of the network that is programmed to choose which transmission lines to send information. Some routers or designed to route information between networks, as on the Internet, while other routers work to route information between computers on the same network.How do routers route? In order for routers to choose the best route (or path) from the source computer to the destination computer, it is necessary that the routers communicate with each other about what computers and networks they are connected to and the routes that can be used to reach these computers and networks. Often these routes must go through other routers. What are advertisements? Advertisements are the messages sent between routers to communicate information about routes to reach each destination. What is convergence?Convergence occurs on the network or internet when all the routers know all the routes to al l the destinations. The time required for all the routers to agree on the state of the network, the network topology, is known as the convergence time. When convergence does not occur, then data can be transmitted to a router which does not know how to get to a destination and this data is then lost. This is called a black hole. It is also possible that the data can be passed around a set of routers continuously without getting to the destination. This is called a routing loop. What is a data packet?When a large message is being transmitted, the message will probably be broken up into smaller messages called data packets, and these data packets may not all be sent by the same path across the Internet, although they will hopefully all reach the same destination What is a metric? A routing metric is a measure associated with a particular path between a source and a destination used by the router to decide what path is the best path. Typical metrics used by routing algorithms include p ath length, bandwidth, load, reliability, delay (or latency) and communication cost.Path length is a geometric measure of how long the transmission lines are. Bandwidth is used to describe the available transmission rate (bps) of a given section the possible transmission path. The load is the data packet transmission per unit time. The reliability of a data transmission path is essentially the number of errors per unit time. The delay in data transmission along a certain path is due to a combination of the metrics that have already been discussed, including geometric length of the transmission lines, bandwidth, and data traffic congestion.The communication cost is essentially the commercial cost of data transmission along a certain transmission line. What is a router protocol? A router protocol is the way the router is programmed to choose the best path for data transmission and communicate with other routers. This algorithm will consider path metrics associated with each path in a way defined by the by the manager of each AS. What is an internet address? In order for routers to identify the destination of a data transmission, every destination must have an address.The internet protocol (IP) method of addressing destinations uses a series of digits separated by dots. An example of an Internet address is 227. 130. 107. 5. Each of the 4 numbers separated by a dot has a value between 0 and 255. This range of values is set from the amount of computer memory designated for addressing at the beginning of the internet. The internet addressing scheme is similar to a scheme for international telephone calls. There is a ‘country code’ which is a fixed number for each country, and then there are other numbers which change on the phone number to refer to specific locations within the country.The numbers on the IP address for a network on the internet correspond to what would be the country code on an international phone number are referred to as ‘prefix ’. The other numbers on the IP address change to refer to individual computers on that particular network. A ‘netmask’ can also be used to specify which numbers on the IP address for a given network are fixed and which ones can be changed. A netmask is a series on ones and zeroes that can be put over the IP address. The part of the IP address under the ones is fixed as a network address.The part of the IP address under the zeros can be changed to indicate specific computers on the network. What is a Domain Name System (DNS), the domain name and the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)? The DNS is a combination of computer hardware and software that can rapidly match the text specification of an IP address, like www. helpmegetoutofthis. com, to an IP address. The part, helpmegetoutofthis. com, is called the domain name. The whole text, www. helpmegetoutofthis. com, is called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL).When you send an e-mail or use the Internet, you use the doma in name and the URL to locate specific sites. This allows people to type in the text name, or domain name, of an internet site into the Netscape browser instead of trying to remember the numerical IP address. The DNS automatically matches the text name to the IP address for the user when the transmission request is submitted. What are servers and clients? All of the computers on the Internet are classified as either servers or clients. The computers that provide services to other computers are called servers.The computers that connect to servers to use the services are called clients. Examples of servers are Web servers, e-mail servers, DNS servers and FTP servers. The computers used at the desktop are generally clients. How the internet works. Although the details of routing and software are complex, the operation of the internet from the users’ perspective is fairly straight forward. As an example of what happens when the Internet is used, consider that you type the URL www . helpmegetoutofthis. com into the Netscape browser.The browser contacts a DNS server to get the IP address. A DNS server would start its search for an IP address. If it finds the IP address for the site, then it returns the IP address to the browser, which then contacts the server for www. helpmegetoutofthis. com, which then transmits the web page to your computer and browser so you can view it. The user is not aware that of the operation of an infrastructure of routers and transmission lines behind this action of retrieving a web page and transmitting the data from one computer to another.The infrastructure of the internet can be seen as a massive array of data relay nodes (routers) interconnected by data transmission lines, where each node can service multiple transmission lines. In the general case where information must be sent across several nodes before being received, there will be many possible pathways over which this transmission might occur. The routers serve to find a p ath for the data transmission to occur. The routing of a file or data packets of a file is either be done by the technique of source routing or the technique of destination routing.In source routing, the path the data transmission will follow id specified at the source of the transmission, while destination routing is controlled by the routers along the path. In the modern internet, almost all routing is done by destination routing because of security issues associated with source routing. Thus, the routers must be programmed with protocols that allow a reasonable, perhaps optimum, path choice for each data packet. For the routers to choose an optimum path also requires that the interconnected routers communicate information concerning local transmission line metrics.Router communication is thus itself a massive information transfer process, given that there is more than 100,000 networks and millions of hosts on the Internet. When viewing the enormity of the problem, it is perhaps e asier to understand why engineers have accepted a sub-optimal solution to the problem of efficiency in data transfer on the Internet. When initially confronting a problem, the practical engineering approach is to simplify the problem to the point where a working solution can be obtained and then refine that solution once the system is functional.Some of the simplifying assumptions used by engineers for the current internet data transmission system include 1) A transmission line is never over capacity and is always available as a path choice. 2) The performance of the router and transmission line does not depend on the amount of traffic. These two assumptions do simplify the problem of path choice considerably because now all the transmission lines and nodes may be considered equal in capacity and performance completely independent of traffic. As such, it is a much simpler optimization problem consisting of finding the route with the shortest path length.To simplify the problem even further, another assumption is made: 3) Consider that an â€Å"Autonomous System† (AS), is a small internet inside the Internet. An AS is generally considered to be a sub-network of an Internet with a common administrative authority and is regulated by a specific set of administrative guidelines. It is assumed that every AS is the same and provides the same performance. The problem of Internet routing can now be broken down into the simpler problem of selecting optimum paths inside the AS and then considering the optimum paths between the AS.Since there are ‘only’ around 15,000 active AS’s on the Internet, the overall problem is reduced to finding the best route over 15,000 AS nodes, and then the much simpler problem of finding the best route through each AS. There is an important (to this thesis) set of protocols which control the exchange of routing information between the AS’s. The sort of routers in an AS which communicates with the rest of the internet and other AS’s are called border routers. Border routers are controlled by a set of programming instructions known as Border Gateway Protocol, BGP.A more detailed discussion of computer networking principals and the Internet facts can be found in e. g. [7]. An Introduction to Router Protocols. Routers are computers connected to multiple networks and programmed to control the data transmission between the networks. Usually, there are multiple paths that are possible for transmission of data between two points on the Internet. The routers involved in the transmission between two points can be programmed to choose the ‘best path’ based on some metric. The ‘protocols’ used to determine the path for data transmission are routing algorithms.Typical metrics used by routing algorithms include path length, bandwidth, load, reliability, delay (or latency) and communication cost. Path length. Path length is a geometric measure of how long the transmiss ion lines are. The routers can be programmed to assign weights to each transmission line proportional to the length of the line or each network node. The path length is then the sum of the weights of the nodes, lines or lines plus nodes along the possible transmission path. Bandwidth. Bandwidth is used to describe the available transmission rate (bps) of a given section the possible transmission path.An open 64 kbps line would not generally be chosen as the pathway for data transmission if an open 10 Mbps Ethernet link is also open, assuming everything else is equal. However, sometimes the higher bandwidth path is very busy and the time required for transmission on a busy, high bandwidth line is actually longer than on a path with a lower bandwidth. Load. This data packet transmission per unit time or the percent of CPU utilization of a router on a given path is referred to as the load on this path. Reliability.The reliability of a data transmission path can be quantitatively descri bed as the bit error rate and results in the assignment of numeric reliability metrics for the possible data transmission pathways. Delay. The delay in data transmission along a certain path is due to a combination of the metrics that have already been discussed, including geometric length of the transmission lines, bandwidth, and data traffic congestion. Because of the hybrid nature of the communications delay metric, it is commonly used in routing algorithms. Communication Cost.In some cases, the commercial cost of data transmission may be more important the time cost. Commercial organisations often prefer to transmit data over low capacity lines which they own as opposed to using public, high capacity lines that have usage charges. The routing algorithms do not have to use just one metric to determine the optimum route; rather it is possible to choose the optimum route based on multiple metrics. In order for the optimum path to be chosen by the routers between the data source and the data destination, the routers must communicate information about the relevant metrics with other routers.This nature of this communication process is also defined by the routing algorithm and the transmission time is linked to the time required for the routers to have the necessary information about the states of the surrounding routers. The time required for all the routers to agree on the state of the network, the network topology, is known as the convergence time and when all routers are aware of the network topology, the network is said to have converged. Some of the common routing algorithm types can indeed affect the convergence of the network.Some of the different algorithms characteristics that must be chosen when designing are static or dynamic routing, single path or multi-path routing and link state or distance vector routing. Static Routing. Static routing is done by use of a static list of attributes describing the network topology at the initiation of the network. This list, called a routing table, is used by the routers to decide the optimum routes for each type of data transmission and can only be changed manually. Therefore, if anything changes in the network, such as a cable breaking or a router crashing, the viability of the network is likely to be compromised.The advantage is that there is no communication required between routers, thus the network is always converged. Dynamic Routing. In contrast to static routing, dynamic routing continually updates the routing tables according to changes that might occur in the network topology. This type of real time information processing allows the network to adjust to variations in data traffic and component reliability, but does require communication between the routers and thus there is a convergence time cost associated with this solution.Single Path vs Multi-path Routing. Single path and muli-path routing are accurate descriptive terms regarding the use of either a single line to send multip le packets of data from a given source to a given destination as opposed to using multiple paths to send all the data packets from the source to the destination. Multiple path algorithms achieve a much higher transmission rate because of a more efficient utilization of available resources. Link State vs Dynamic Routing Protocols.Link-state algorithms are dynamic routing algorithms which require routers to send routing table information to all the routers in the network, but only that information which describes its own operational state. Distance-vector algorithms, however, require each router to send the whole of its router table, but only to the neighbouring routers. Because the link-state algorithms require small amounts of information to be sent to a large number of routers and the distance vector algorithm requires large amounts of information sent to a small number of routers, the link state algorithm will converge faster.However, link state algorithms require more system reso urces (CPU time and memory). There is a new type of algorithm developed by CISCO which is a hybrid of the link-state algorithm and the distance vector algorithm [8].. This proprietary algorithm converges faster than the typical distance-vector algorithm but provides more information to the routers than the typical link-state algorithm. This is because the routers are allowed to actively query one another to obtain the necessary information missing from the partial tables communicated by the link-state algorithms.At the same time, this hybrid algorithm avoids communication of any superfluous information exhibited in the router communications of the full tables associated with distance-vector algorithm. Switching. The distance vector, link state or hybrid algorithms all have the same purpose, to insure that all of the routers have an updated table that gives information on all the data transmission paths to a specific destination. Each of these protocols requires that when data is tra nsmitted from a source to a destination, the routers have the ability to ‘switch’ the address on the data transmission.When a router receives a data packet from a source with the destination address, it examines the address of the destination. If the router has a path to that destination in the routing table, then the router determines the address of the next router the data packet will ‘hop’ to and changes the physical address of packet to that of the next hop, and then transmits the packet. This process of physical address change is called ‘switching’. It will be repeated at each hop until the packet reaches the final destination.Although the physical address for the forwarding transmission of the data packet changes as the packet moves across the Internet, the final destination address remains associated with the packet and is a constant. The internet is divided up into hierarchical groups that are useful in the description of the switching process. At the bottom of this hierarchy are network devices without the capability to switch and forward packets between sub-networks, where an AS is a sub-network.These network devices are called end systems (ESs), because if a packet is transmitted there, it cannot be forwarded and has come to the end. At the top of the hierarchy are the network devices that can switch physical addresses are called intermediate systems (ISs). An IS which can only forward packets within a sub-network are referred to as intra-domain ISs while those which communicate either within or between sub-networks are called intra-domain ISs. Details of Routing Algorithms Link State AlgorithmsIn a link state algorithm, every router in the network is notified of a topology change at the same time. This avoids some of the problems associated with the nearest neighbour update propagation that occurs in the distance vector algorithms. The ‘Open Shortest Path First’ (OSPF) protocol uses a graph topolo gy algorithm like Dijkstra’s Algorithm to determine the best path for data transmission between a given data source and a data destination. The metric used for route optimisation is specific to the manual configuration of the router.However, the default metric is the speed of the interface. The OSPF uses a two level, hierarchical network classification. The lower level of hierarchy is groups of routers called areas. All the routers in an area have full knowledge of all the other routers in the area, but reduced knowledge of routers in a different area. The different areas organized within the OSPF algorithm are connected by border routers, which have full knowledge of multiple areas. The upper level of the hierarchy is the backbone network, to which all areas must be connected.That is, all data traffic going from one area to another must pass through the backbone routers. Distance Vector Algorithms In order for data to be transmitted from a source to a destination on the Inte rnet, the destination must be identified using some mechanism. That is, each possible destination for data transmission must be described with an address. The scheme currently used to address the internet space is the Internet Protocol (IP) version 4. The IP version 4 uses an address length limited by 32 bits. An example of an Internet address is 227. 130. 107.5 with the corresponding bit vector 11100011 10000010 01101011 00000101. An initial difficulty in managing the available address space was the implementation of a class structure, where large blocks of internet address space was reserved for organisations such as universities, leaving commercial applications with limited address space. Routing of data transmission in this address environment was referred to as class-full routing. To alleviate this problem of limited address space, the internet community has slowly evolved to a classless structure, with classless routing.In distance vector protocols, each router sends adjacent routers information about known paths to specific addresses. The neighbouring routers are sent information giving a distance metric of each one from a destination address. The distance metric could be the number of routers which must be used to reach the destination address, known as the ‘hop count’, or it could be the actual transmission distance in the network. Although this information is advertised only to the adjacent routers, these routers will then communicate the information with their neighbouring routers, and so on, until the entire network has the same information.This information is then used to build the routing table which associates the distance metric with a destination address. The distance vector protocol is implemented when a router receives a packet, notes the destination, determines the path with the shortest distance to the destination and then forwards the packet to the next router along the shortest distance path. One of the first distance vector protocols implemented on the Internet was the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). RIP uses the distance metric of hop count to determine the shortest distance to the destination address.It also implements several protocols to avoid having data packets pass through the same router more than once (router loops). The path vector protocol is a distance vector protocol that includes information on the routes over which the routing updates have been transmitted. It is this information on path structure which is used to avoid routing loops. Path Vector Protocols are also somewhat more sophisticated than RIP because an attempt is made to ‘weight’ each path based on a locally defined criteria that may not simply reflect the highest quality of service, but rather the highest profit for an ISP.The implementation of these types of router algorithms may be different in different parts of the Internet. When the algorithms are implemented inside an autonomous system, they are called Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP). Because the different autonomous systems that make up the Internet are independent from one another, the type of routing algorithm used within the autonomous systems can also be independent of one another.That is, the managers of each autonomous system are free to choose the type of algorithm which best suits their particular network, whether it is static or dynamic link-state or dynamic distance-vector. When the algorithms are implemented to control data transmission between autonomous systems, they are referred to as Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP). The EGP connect all autonomous systems together to form the Internet and thus all EGP should use the same algorithm.The specific algorithm currently used as the EGP on the Internet is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), which is a type of distance vector algorithm called a path vector algorithm [9]. A path vector algorithm uses information about the final destination of the data transmission in additio n to the attributes of the neighbouring links. It should be noted that the BGP algorithm can also be used as a router protocol within an autonomous system and is called an interior BGP (IBGP) in that instance. This necessitates calling the BGP an EBGP when it is implemented as an EGP.